A friend and I have been playing around with pygame some and came across this tutorial for building games using pygame. We really liked how it broke out the game into a model-view-controller system with events as a go-between, but the code makes heavy use of isinstance checks for the event system.

Example:

class CPUSpinnerController:
    ...
    def Notify(self, event):
        if isinstance( event, QuitEvent ):
            self.keepGoing = 0

This results in some extremely unpythonic code. Does anyone have any suggestions on how this could be improved? Or an alternative methodology for implementing MVC?

This is a bit of code I wrote based on @Mark-Hildreth answer (how do I link users?) Does anyone else have any good suggestions? I'm going to leave this open for another day or so before picking a solution.

class EventManager:
    def __init__(self):
        from weakref import WeakKeyDictionary
        self.listeners = WeakKeyDictionary()

    def add(self, listener):
        self.listeners[ listener ] = 1

    def remove(self, listener):
        del self.listeners[ listener ]

    def post(self, event):
        print "post event %s" % event.name
        for listener in self.listeners.keys():
            listener.notify(event)

class Listener:
    def __init__(self, event_mgr=None):
        if event_mgr is not None:
            event_mgr.add(self)

    def notify(self, event):
        event(self)


class Event:
    def __init__(self, name="Generic Event"):
        self.name = name

    def __call__(self, controller):
        pass

class QuitEvent(Event):
    def __init__(self):
        Event.__init__(self, "Quit")

    def __call__(self, listener):
        listener.exit(self)

class RunController(Listener):
    def __init__(self, event_mgr):
        Listener.__init__(self, event_mgr)
        self.running = True
        self.event_mgr = event_mgr

    def exit(self, event):
        print "exit called"
        self.running = False

    def run(self):
        print "run called"
        while self.running:
            event = QuitEvent()
            self.event_mgr.post(event)

em = EventManager()
run = RunController(em)
run.run()

This is another build using the examples from @Paul - impressively simple!

class WeakBoundMethod:
    def __init__(self, meth):
        import weakref
        self._self = weakref.ref(meth.__self__)
        self._func = meth.__func__

    def __call__(self, *args, **kwargs):
        self._func(self._self(), *args, **kwargs)

class EventManager:
    def __init__(self):
        # does this actually do anything?
        self._listeners = { None : [ None ] }

    def add(self, eventClass, listener):
        print "add %s" % eventClass.__name__
        key = eventClass.__name__

        if (hasattr(listener, '__self__') and
            hasattr(listener, '__func__')):
            listener = WeakBoundMethod(listener)

        try:
            self._listeners[key].append(listener)
        except KeyError:
            # why did you not need this in your code?
            self._listeners[key] = [listener]

        print "add count %s" % len(self._listeners[key])

    def remove(self, eventClass, listener):
        key = eventClass.__name__
        self._listeners[key].remove(listener)

    def post(self, event):
        eventClass = event.__class__
        key = eventClass.__name__
        print "post event %s (keys %s)" % (
            key, len(self._listeners[key]))
        for listener in self._listeners[key]:
            listener(event)

class Event:
    pass

class QuitEvent(Event):
    pass

class RunController:
    def __init__(self, event_mgr):
        event_mgr.add(QuitEvent, self.exit)
        self.running = True
        self.event_mgr = event_mgr

    def exit(self, event):
        print "exit called"
        self.running = False

    d开发者_Python百科ef run(self):
        print "run called"
        while self.running:
            event = QuitEvent()
            self.event_mgr.post(event)

em = EventManager()
run = RunController(em)
run.run()

A cleaner way of handling events (and also a lot faster, but possibly consumes a bit more memory) is to have multiple event handler functions in your code. Something along these lines:

The Desired Interface

class KeyboardEvent:
    pass

class MouseEvent:
    pass

class NotifyThisClass:
    def __init__(self, event_dispatcher):
        self.ed = event_dispatcher
        self.ed.add(KeyboardEvent, self.on_keyboard_event)
        self.ed.add(MouseEvent, self.on_mouse_event)

    def __del__(self):
        self.ed.remove(KeyboardEvent, self.on_keyboard_event)
        self.ed.remove(MouseEvent, self.on_mouse_event)

    def on_keyboard_event(self, event):
        pass

    def on_mouse_event(self, event):
        pass

Here, the __init__ method receives an EventDispatcher as an argument. The EventDispatcher.add function now takes the type of the event you are interested in, and the listener.

This has benefits for efficiency since the listener only ever gets called for events that it is interested in. It also results in more generic code inside the EventDispatcher itself:

EventDispatcher Implementation

class EventDispatcher:
    def __init__(self):
        # Dict that maps event types to lists of listeners
        self._listeners = dict()

    def add(self, eventcls, listener):
        self._listeners.setdefault(eventcls, list()).append(listener)

    def post(self, event):
        try:
            for listener in self._listeners[event.__class__]:
                listener(event)
        except KeyError:
            pass # No listener interested in this event

But there is a problem with this implementation. Inside NotifyThisClass you do this:

self.ed.add(KeyboardEvent, self.on_keyboard_event)

The problem is with self.on_keyboard_event: it is a bound method which you passed to the EventDispatcher. Bound methods hold a reference to self; this means that as long as the EventDispatcher has the bound method, self will not be deleted.

WeakBoundMethod

You will need to create a WeakBoundMethod class that holds only a weak reference to self (I see you already know about weak references) so that the EventDispatcher does not prevent the deletion of self.

An alternative would be to have a NotifyThisClass.remove_listeners function that you call before deleting the object, but that's not really the cleanest solution and I find it very error prone (easy to forget to do).

The implementation of WeakBoundMethod would look something like this:

class WeakBoundMethod:
    def __init__(self, meth):
        self._self = weakref.ref(meth.__self__)
        self._func = meth.__func__

    def __call__(self, *args, **kwargs):
        self._func(self._self(), *args, **kwargs)

Here's a more robust implementation I posted on CodeReview, and here's an example of how you'd use the class:

from weak_bound_method import WeakBoundMethod as Wbm

class NotifyThisClass:
    def __init__(self, event_dispatcher):
        self.ed = event_dispatcher
        self.ed.add(KeyboardEvent, Wbm(self.on_keyboard_event))
        self.ed.add(MouseEvent, Wbm(self.on_mouse_event))

Connection Objects (Optional)

When removing listeners from the manager/ dispatcher, instead of making the EventDispatcher needlessly search through the listeners until it finds the right event type, then search through the list until it finds the right listener, you could have something like this:

class NotifyThisClass:
    def __init__(self, event_dispatcher):
        self.ed = event_dispatcher
        self._connections = [
            self.ed.add(KeyboardEvent, Wbm(self.on_keyboard_event)),
            self.ed.add(MouseEvent, Wbm(self.on_mouse_event))
        ]

Here EventDispatcher.add returns a Connection object that knows where in the EventDispatcher's dict of lists it resides. When a NotifyThisClass object is deleted, so is self._connections, which will call Connection.__del__, which will remove the listener from the EventDispatcher.

This could make your code both faster and easier to use because you only have to explicitly add the functions, they are removed automatically, but it's up to you to decide if you want to do this. If you do it, note that EventDispatcher.remove shouldn't exist anymore.

I stumbled upon SJ Brown's tutorial on making games in the past. It's a great page, one of the best I've read. However, like you, I didn't like the calls to isinstance, or the fact that all the listeners receive all the events.

First, isinstance is slower than checking that two strings are equals, so I ended up storing a name on my events and test for the name rather than the class. But still, the notify function with its battery of if was itching me because it felt like a waste of time. We can do two optimizations here:

1. Most listeners are interested in only a few types of events. For performance reasons, when QuitEvent is posted, only the listeners interested in it should be notified. The event manager keeps track of which listener wants to listen to which event.
2. Then, to avoid going through a tons of if statements in a single notify method, we will have one method per type of event.

Example:

class GameLoopController(...):
    ...
    def onQuitEvent(self, event):
        # Directly called by the event manager when a QuitEvent is posted.
        # I call this an event handler.
        self._running = False

Because I want the developer to type as little as possible, I made the following thing:

When a listener is registered to an event manager, the event manager scans all the methods of the listener. When one method starts with 'on' (or any prefix you like), then it looks at the rest ("QuitEvent") and binds this name to this method. Later, when the event manager pumps its event list, it looks at the event class name: "QuitEvent". It knows that name, and therefore can directly call all the corresponding event handlers directly. The developer has nothing to do but adding onWhateverEvent methods to have them working.

It has some drawbacks:

1. If I make a typo in the name of the handler ("onRunPhysicsEvent" instead of "onPhysicsRanEvent" for example") then my handler will never be called and I'll wonder why. But I know the trick so I don't wonder why very long.
2. I cannot add an event handler after the listener has been registered. I must un-register and re-register. Indeed, the events handlers are scanned only during the registration. Then again, I never had to do that anyway so I don't miss it.

Despite these drawbacks I like it much more than having the constructor of the listener explicitly explain the event manager that it wants to stay tuned of this, this, this and this event. And it's the same execution speed anyway.

Second point:

When designing our event manager, we want to be careful. Very often, a listener will respond to an event by creating-registering or unregistering-destroying listeners. This happens all the time. If we don't think about it then our game may break with RuntimeError: dictionary changed size during iteration. The code that you propose iterates over a copy of the dictionary so you're protected against explosions; but it has consequences to be aware of: - Listeners registered because of an event will not receive that event. - Listeners unregistered because of an event will still receive that event. I never found it to be a problem though.

I implemented that myself for the game I am developing. I can link you to two articles and a half I wrote on the subject:

• http://niriel.wordpress.com/2011/08/06/who-controls-the-controllers/
• http://niriel.wordpress.com/2011/08/08/the-event-management-is-in-place/
• http://niriel.wordpress.com/2011/08/11/the-first-screenshot-of-infiniworld/

The links to my github account will bring you directly to the source code of the relevant parts. If you cannot wait, here's the thing: https://github.com/Niriel/Infiniworld/blob/v0.0.2/src/evtman.py . In there you'll see that the code for my event class is a bit big, but that every inherited event is declared in 2 lines: the base Event class is making your life easy.

So, this all works using python's introspection mechanism, and using the fact that methods are objects like any other that can be put in dictionaries. I think it's quite pythony :).

Give each event a method (possibly even using __call__), and pass in the Controller object as an argument. The "call" method should then call the controller object. For example...

class QuitEvent:
    ...
    def __call__(self, controller):
        controller.on_quit(self) # or possibly... controller.on_quit(self.val1, self.val2)

class CPUSpinnerController:
    ...
    def on_quit(self, event):
        ...

Whatever code you're using to route your events to your controllers will call the __call__ method with the correct controller.

I stumbled upon the same issue (almost a decade later!), and here is an implementation I've been using so that the EventManager would notify only a subset of listeners.
It is based on defaultdict: the _listeners attribute of EventManager is a defaultdict of WeakKeyDictionary().
Event are all inherited from an empty abstract Event class, so listeners can focus only on some classes of events they want to listen to.
Here is a minimalist code to get the idea behind it:

from collections import defaultdict
from weakref import WeakKeyDictionary

class Event:
    def __init__(self):
       pass

class KeyboardEvent(Event): # for instance, a keyboard event class with the key pressed
    def __init__(self, key):
        self._key = key

class EventManager:
    def __init__(self):
        self._listeners = defaultdict(lambda: WeakKeyDictionary())

    def register_listener(self, event_types, listener):
        for event_type in event_types:
            self._listeners[event_type][listener] = 1

    def unregister_listener(self, listener):
        for event_type in self._listeners:
            self._listeners[event_type].pop(listener, None)

    def post_event(self, event):
        for listener in self._listeners[event.__class__]:
            listener.notify(event)

When registering, a listener tells the event manager which event type it wants to be notified of.
When posting events, the event manager will only notify the listeners which registered to be notified for that type of event.
This piece of code has, of course, much less scope than the very general (and very elegant) solution proposed by @Paul Manta, but in my case, it helped remove some repetitive calls to isinstance and other checks while keeping things as simple as I could.
One of the drawbacks of this is that all type of events have to be objects of some class, but in OO python, this is supposed to be the way to go.