Why not have all the functions as virtual in C++?

I know that virtual functions have an overhead of dereferencing to call a method. But I guess with modern architectural speed it is almost negligible.

1. Is there any particular reason why all functions in C++ are not virtual as in Java?
2. From my knowledge, defining a function virtual in a base class is sufficient/ne开发者_Python百科cessary. Now when I write a parent class, I might not know which methods would get over-ridden. So does that mean that while writing a child class someone would have to edit the parent class. This sounds like inconvenient and sometimes not possible?

Update:

Summarizing from Jon Skeet's answer below:

It's a trade-off between explicitly making someone realize that they are inheriting functionality [which has potential risks in themselves [(check Jon's response)] [and potential small performance gains] with a trade-off for less flexibility, more code changes, and a steeper learning curve.

Other reasons from different answers:

Virtual functions cannot be in-lined because inlining have to happen at runtime. This have performance impacts when you expect you functions benefits from inlining.

There might be potentially other reasons, and I would love to know and summarize them.

There are good reasons for controlling which methods are virtual beyond performance. While I don't actually make most of my methods final in Java, I probably should... unless a method is designed to be overridden, it probably shouldn't be virtual IMO.

Designing for inheritance can be tricky - in particular it means you need to document far more about what might call it and what it might call. Imagine if you have two virtual methods, and one calls the other - that must be documented, otherwise someone could override the "called" method with an implementation which calls the "calling" method, unwittingly creating a stack overflow (or infinite loop if there's tail call optimization). At that point you've then got less flexibility in your implementation - you can't switch it round at a later date.

Note that C# is a similar language to Java in various ways, but chose to make methods non-virtual by default. Some other people aren't keen on this, but I certainly welcome it - and I'd actually prefer that classes were uninheritable by default too.

Basically, it comes down to this advice from Josh Bloch: design for inheritance or prohibit it.

1. One of the main C++ principles is: you only pay for what you use ("zero overhead principle"). If you don't need the dynamic dispatch mechanism, you shouldn't pay for its overhead.

2. As the author of the base class, you should decide which methods should be allowed to be overridden. If you're writing both, go ahead and refactor what you need. But it works this way, because there has to be a way for the author of the base class to control its use.

But I guess with modern architectural speed it is almost negligible.

This assumption is wrong, and, I guess, the main reason for this decision.

Consider the case of inlining. C++’ sort function performs much faster than C’s otherwise similar qsort in some scenarios because it can inline its comparator argument, while C cannot (due to use of function pointers). In extreme cases, this can mean performance differences of as much as 700% (Scott Meyers, Effective STL).

The same would be true for virtual functions. We’ve had similar discussions before; for instance, Is there any reason to use C++ instead of C, Perl, Python, etc?

Most answers deal with the overhead of virtual functions, but there are other reasons not to make any function in a class virtual, as the fact that it will change the class from standard-layout to, well, non-standard-layout, and that can be a problem if you need to serialize binary data. That is solved differently in C#, for example, by having structs being a different family of types than classes.

From the design point of view, every public function establishes a contract between your type and the users of the type, and every virtual function (public or not) establishes a different contract with the classes that extend your type. The greater the number of such contracts that you sign the less room for changes that you have. As a matter of fact, there are quite a few people, including some well known writers, that defend that the public interface should never contain virtual functions, as your compromise to your clients might be different from the compromises you require from your extensions. That is, the public interfaces shows what you do for your clients, while the virtual interface shows how others might help you in doing it.

Another effect of virtual functions is that they always get dispatched to the final overrider (unless you explicitly qualify the call), and that means that any function that is needed to maintain your invariants (think the state of the private variables) should not be virtual: if a class extends it, it will have to either make an explicit qualified call back to the parent or else would break the invariants at your level.

This is similar to the example of the infinite loop/stack overflow that @Jon Skeet mentioned, just in a different way: you have to document in each function whether it accesses any private attributes so that extensions will ensure that the function is called at the right time. And that in turn means that you are breaking encapsulation and you have a leaking abstraction: Your internal details are now part of the interface (documentation + requirements on your extensions), and you cannot modify them as you wish.

Then there is performance... there will be an impact in performance, but in most cases that is overrated, and it could be argued that only in the few cases where performance is critical, you would fall back and declare the functions non-virtual. Then again, that might not be simple on a built product, since the two interfaces (public + extensions) are already bound.

You forget one thing. The overhead is also in memory, that is you add a virtual table and a pointer to that table for each object. Now if you have an object which has significant number of instances expected then it is not negligible. example, million instance equals 4 Mega byte. I agree that for simple application this is not much, but for real time devices such as routers this counts.

I'm rather late to the party here, so I'll add one thing that I haven't noticed covered in other answers, and summarise quickly...

• Usability in shared memory: a typical implementation of virtual dispatch has a pointer to a class-specific virtual dispatch table in each object. The addresses in these pointers are specific to the process creating them, which means multi-process systems accessing objects in shared memory can't dispatch using another process's object! That's an unacceptable limitation given shared memory's importance in high-performance multi-process systems.

• Encapsulation: the ability of a class designer to control the members accessed by client code, ensuring class semantics and invariants are maintained. For example, if you derive from std::string (I may get a few comments for daring to suggest that ;-P) then you can use all the normal insert / erase / append operations and be sure that - provided you don't do anything that's always undefined behaviour for std::string like pass bad position values to functions - the std::string data will be sound. Someone checking or maintaining your code doesn't have to check if you've changed the meaning of those operations. For a class, encapsulation ensures freedom to later modify the implementation without breaking client code. Another perspective on the same statement: client code can use the class any way it likes without being sensitive to the implementation details. If any function can be changed in a derived class, that whole encapsulation mechanism is simply blown away.

  • Hidden dependencies: when you know neither what other functions are dependent on the one you're overriding, nor that the function was designed to be overridden, then you can't reason about the impact of your change. For example, you think "I've always wanted this", and change std::string::operator[]() and at() to consider negative values (after a type-cast to signed) to be offsets backwards from the end of the string. But, perhaps some other function was using at() as a kind of assertion that an index was valid - knowing it'll throw otherwise - before attempting an insertion or deletion... that code might go from throwing in a Standard-specified way to having undefined (but likely lethal) behaviour.
  • Documentation: by making a function virtual, you're documenting that it is an intended point of customisation, and part of the API for client code to use.

• Inlining - code side & CPU usage: virtual dispatch complicates the compiler's job of working out when to inline function calls, and could therefore provide worse code in terms of both space/bloat and CPU usage.

• Indirection during calls: even if an out-of-line call is being made either way, there's a small performance cost for virtual dispatch that may be significant when calling trivially simple functions repeatedly in performance critical systems. (You have to read the per-object pointer to the virtual dispatch table, then the virtual dispatch table entry itself - means the VDT pages are consuming cache too.)

• Memory usage: the per-object pointers to virtual dispatch tables may represent significant wasted memory, especially for arrays of small objects. This means less objects fit in cache, and can have a significant performance impact.

• Memory layout: it's essential for performance, and highly convenient for interoperability, that C++ can define classes with the exact memory layout of member data specified by network or data standards of various libraries and protocols. That data often comes from outside your C++ program, and may be generated in another language. Such communications and storage protocols won't have "gaps" for pointers to virtual dispatch tables, and as discussed earlier - even if they did, and the compiler somehow let you efficiently inject the correct pointers for your process over incoming data, that would frustrate multi-process access to the data. Crude-but-practical pointer/size based serialisation/deserialisation/comms code would also be made more complicated and potentially slower.

Pay per use (in Bjarne Stroustrup words).

Seems like this question might have some answers Virtual functions should not be used excessively - Why ?. In my opinion the one thing that stands out is that it just add more complexity in terms of knowing what can be done with inheritance.

Yes, it's because of performance overhead. Virtual methods are called using virtual tables and indirection.

In Java all methods are virtual and the overhead is also present. But, contrary to C++, the JIT compiler profiles the code during run-time and can in-line those methods which don't use this property. So, JVM knows where it's really needed and where not thus freeing You from making the decision on your own.

The issues is that while Java compiles to code that runs on a virtual machine, that same guarantee can't be made for C++. It common to use C++ as a more organized replacement for C, and C has a 1:1 translation to assembly.

If you consider that 9 out of 10 microprocessors in the world are not in a personal computer or a smartphone, you'll see the issue when you further consider that there are a lot of processors that need this low level access.

C++ was designed to avoid that hidden deferencing if you didn't need it, thus keeping that 1:1 nature. Some of the first C++ code actually had an intermediate step of being translated to C before running through a C-to-assembly compiler.

Java method calls are far more efficient than C++ due to runtime optimization.

What we need is to compile C++ into bytecode and run it on JVM.